Coke vs Pepsi strategy Essay Example for Free

Coke vs Pepsi strategy Essay Coke v. Pepsi – 5 Forces Analysis Industry concentrate produces High intensity (depends on price/advertising cost/ high number of substitutes(low calorie drinks/no carb drinks/ not carbonated drinks like orange juice) Pepsi products /Coke products New Entrants (barriers/rivalry) High Intensity-Brand recognition dominant market/ patents on style and colors Network relationships high cost of entry established such as distribution, warehouse, bottlers, and shelf-location high marketing costs Coke dominance on international market makes it hard for Pepsi to enter international markets where Coke is dominant (Mexico) Suppliers (Bargaining Power of Supplier) Medium intensity- Coke and Pepsi can and do renegotiate contracts with bottlers on prices, marketing, distribution territories, and etc. High intensity- for new entrants because the bottlers determine price of product (price takers), shelf- place is determined by retailer and less price discount control. There is a small number of important suppliers since Coke and Pepsi supported suppliers to buy other smaller suppliers to keep up with their needs. Buyers (Bargaining Power of Buyers) High Intensity- due to the high number of substitutes, health concerns, and few key buyers (fountain outlets/vending machines) E.g.) Coke and Pepsi battled for the right to sign a contract with fast food restaurants like Burger King. Substitutes ( threat of substitutes) Medium Intensity- high number of substitutes(low calorie drinks/no carb drinks/ not carbonated drinks like Orange juice /ice tea/ flavored water/etc. Low intensity – competition among other pop drink because it’s based on brand recognition.

The Lost Generation :: essays papers

The Lost Generation During World War I, many of the men who fought were only about nineteen years young. These men experienced horrors beyond belief in a matter of years, which is ten times worse than a normal man experiences his whole life. This generation of men, from 1914-1918, who fought in a great war and lived in constant fear of their last breathe, while we enjoy parties, the freedom of being a teenager, and able just to kick back and enjoy life at its prime. This is the lost generation. As tensions grew in Europe during the early twentieth century young teenagers throughout were going to grade school and enjoying life to its fullest. Little do these children know that in a matter of years they will be fighting in one of the most gruesome wars in history. While they were in school the leaders of Europe were contemplating the thought of war and forming alliances. Many people thought that if they went to war, it would be over and done with before they knew it. The people who said this were the lucky ones; they didn't have to fight in it. The kids who did fight in it didn't know what to expect. They were taken from their sheltered homes and thrown into unimaginable chaos. World War I should never have been fought. It was because of a royal family feud that caused millions of deaths. How would one feel if one saw their best friend blown up right before their very own eyes? These kids saw their comrades choke to death because of the fatal mustard gas. They saw friends get shot in the stomach and die slowly of excruciating pain. The dead bodies were innumerable and they had to face their enemy eye to eye and then kill them. These men starved and had to fight off giant rats. Most of these men died of a cause they did not know. If you look at The Gulf War back in 1991, any intelligent person would say how easily we won. We decimated Iraq in a few weeks for two reasons; because of top grade equipment and because of excellently trained men. The men who fought in The Gulf War were between 26 and 27 years old. They were properly trained and had the audacity that younger soldiers lack. The older men also do not loose their youth. They had something that no one can take away, memories of their childhood and teenage years.

Factors Involved in the Tanker Contract Essay

Issues that relate to security are of key concern to all nations (Meyer, 2007). The national security and internal defense are some of the sectors that are allocated lump sums of resources in the budgetary allocation (Meyer, 2007). Such allocations are in line with the perceived importance that the area of defense has. The united states as a country is no stranger to conflict and is one of the country that has been involved in external conflict for long periods of time both in the 20th and 21st century (Meyer, 2007). The politics involved in the security are some of the most interesting and widely covered happenings in the US press. Financial power is seen to go in line with military power in that countries that have the financial ability tend to develop their military capabilities and the same can be said of countries that have military abilities. National security is an area of key concern and therefore there is lots of secrecy involved in its dealings (Meyer, 2007). The nature of the deals often require utmost confidentiality from the parties involved and therefore many transactions happen in well defined and approved channels. The military association are developed with time and may be extended to association in other areas since its better to develop good relations with persons with security details that could be detrimental to the country if leaked (Meyer, 2007). The military world has been developing with technological improvements and the military equipments currently being used are characterized by more accuracy and considerable throughput (Verkuil, 2007). These two factors are but a few of the considerations in choosing a partner or a contractor that will help in developing certain aspects of the security system (Verkuil, 2007). It therefore does not come as a surprise that military procurement procedures and processes have considerable controversy since people have varied views on efficiency and security implications (Verkuil, 2007). This research paper analyses the issues involved in the airforce contract tender to build tankers between Boeing and Northrop Grumman with the aim of highlighting key issues involved in addressing security critical details. Background Boeing KC-767 is one of the military aerial refueling strategy that had been developed by Boeing 767-200 (CBS News, 2008). The tanker was designated KC-767 after it was selected by the US airforce to replace the KC-135’s. However, in December of 2003, the contract was frozen after corruption allegation on the bidding process were forwarded. The development of the project is said to have cost Boeing over $ 1 Billion as the project was based on the assumption that the US airforce will be the chief consumer. Ever since the freezing of the project the Italian and the Chinese government have each ordered a number of these tankers. To address the KC-X competition the Boeing offered the 7627-200 Long range freighter which is based on the KC-767 (Online News Hour, 2008). However, the Department of defense selected KC-30 which was developed by Northrop Grumman (CBS News, 2008). The Boeing company on the 11th March 2008 submitted a protest on the decisions made by the airforce, the United States accountability office upheld their protests and in so doing the status of the KC-45A was placed in doubt and therefore the Boeing company was again in position to bid for the contract (CBS News, 2008). This was no to be since the US government in September 2008 terminated all bids on the KC-X (CBS News, 2008). In March 2002, the US airforce selected Boeing’s KC-767 on the grounds that it had clearly demonstrated the abilities to meet their requirements. The United States Airforce (USAF) in their acceptance statement brought out four points that they cited as being behind their decision (CBS News, 2008). The Boeing’s design was designated KC-767A and was included in DOD’s 2004 model designation report. Approximately 100 KC-767 tankers were leased from Boeing for the air refueling program. Even though the refueling program was in place in many countries in the US, many had questions about its effectiveness and cost implications especially the idea of leasing crafts which may never have any buyer once the lease period was over. This argument brought forward by senator McCain was however countered by the number of US allies who were more than willing to buy their used crafts (CBS News, 2008). The congressional budget office was next in line as they criticized the budget stressing on its fiscal irresponsibility (United States Government Accountability Office, 2008). This led to the striking of a deal where the state would buy 80 KC-767 and lease twenty (United States Government Accountability Office, 2008). However, in December of 2003, the pentagon announced that the project had to be frozen due to a corruption allegation brought against one of its former staffer (CBS News, 2008). Furthermore, documentations that proved that the A330 based tankers were more suited to the task specifications of the airforce were more cost effective relative to Boeing tankers were found (CBS News, 2008). The scandal led to the sentencing of the culprit who pleaded guilty to corruptions and led to the resignation of Boeing’s CEO. Donald Rumsfeld in 2006 announced the cancellation of the KC-767A leases as a measure aimed at cutting the costs and a redefinition of the USAF mission (United States Government Accountability Office, 2008). The defense secretary further stated that the move will not in any way affects the mission of the KC-767A as the upgrade of the KC-135’s fleets will help in moving towards the goals (United States Government Accountability Office, 2008). However, the development did no affect the relationships between Boeing and its other customers. The development were however short lived and Boeing and Northrop were soon back in the ring fighting for a big defense contract. The basis of Boeing’s arguments was that the KC-30 was more versatile and had a large furl capacity than the KC-135 that were being used by the airforce. The KC-135 was developed by Boeing who were bidding for an airforce contract against their nemesis Northrop Grumman . The latter won this round of battle as the departments of defense announced that it has won the tender to procure 179 new KC-45A tankers (Online News Hour, 2008). The Boeing company almost immediately took to the Government Accountability Office and filed a protests claiming the evaluation of its KC-30 was unfair (Online News Hour, 2008). Boeing further claimed that its refueling tanker could easily be reconverted to a passenger plane compared to Northrop’s version as shown in the Air force’s post decision briefing. According to Boeing’s vice president they had more strengths than their competitors was all he heard from the post decision briefing. Boeing’s protests led to a review of the selection process by the accountability office which forced Northrop to freeze the project which it had already allocated $ 35 billion (Online News Hour, 2008). Northrop Grumman executives are on the other hand highlighting the irresponsibility involved in freezing a critical project to the development of the military for expensive lobbying in the congress that will inevitably lead to a change of the decisions made by the airforce (Online News Hour, 2008). Northrop Grumman executives further claim the decision is ironic since they put their best efforts in ensuring that the airforce receives a products that they consider the best in consideration of the design (Online News Hour, 2008). They are pushing for the public knowledge of the facts of what they represents and what they are not. The congress was divided sharply on this issue and so was the general public. Boeing supporters claim that the Northrop Grumman design was a basic passenger airbus plane (Online News Hour, 2008). A Kansas congress man was cited claiming that the decisions made by the airforce was a bad one as the airforce as it has bend backwards to deal with a French company (Online News Hour, 2008). Boeing’s die hards near its main production facility claimed that it is the only true tanker manufacturers and a mistake had been made (Online News Hour, 2008). A Washington senator supported this point of view and claimed that offering a military contract to a foreign company was suicidal and would incapacitate America’s ability to develop their own fleet if they should ever pull out of the deal (Online News Hour, 2008). An Alabama state senators is of a different view and approached the subject from a resource allocations view point (Online News Hour, 2008). People near Northrop are bound to benefit more that those near the Boeing plants and therefore there senators have opinions that display their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the resource allocations (Online News Hour, 2008). She further states that there have to be losers and winner either way (Online News Hour, 2008). The Boeing group further accuse the airforce of a change in parameter in order to accommodate the design put up by Northrop Grumman so as to ensure two bidders are present (Online News Hour, 2008). Even though many are of the view that the airforce was trying to lock out Boeing due to the scandals it previously had, Boeing executives were of the view that was not the case as the specifications that were asked by the airforce were changed considerably to ensure Northrop was in the race (Online News Hour, 2008). They further claim that the large sized tanker proposed by the Northrop was a liability and only countries not interested in their taxi ways would allow for such aircrafts. The Northrop group however counter this argument by stating that their design is more sophisticated and has advantages that are yet to be seen (Online News Hour, 2008). Issues Boeing is one of the world’s best known manufactures of aircrafts and so is Northrop Grumman who are the manufacturers of the airbus (Online News Hour, 2008). These are two top brands who are obviously competing in other areas of business and therefore any decision that involve them is bound to raise considerable heat. It should b noted that both are American companies though Northrop Grumman is partly owned by a French company. The nature of the contract which involves the security of America as a nation is a matter of national concern as it involves the development of structures that could ensure the growth of security systems. Boeing and Grumman being business structures, such a big contract will obviously attract the interest of stakeholders from both sides. There are a number of key issues that have been brought out by the airforce contracts which include: i. Politics Military contracts are a matter of public concern since it is in place to protect the public, the resources used in the military contracts are derived from taxpayers and therefore the failure of such projects will be a waste of taxpayers money (Meyer, 2007). When McCain questioned the cost effectiveness in leasing planes that would otherwise have no values when their lease period was over his motive as the senator of Alabama was to ensure that the taxpayers money is channeled to useful projects. Furthermore, it is quite clear that the politicians have the ability to shoot down potentially useful deals due to what Northrop Grumman executives refer to as expensive lobbying. Politics is not always objective for there are situations where the stakes involved are shielded from the public and though the politics and viewpoints will be developed to suit the public, the real reasons are often personal (Meyer, 2007). The inclusion of politics in such cases therefore has both advantages and disadvantages and should be weighed carefully. Military procurement just like any other public procurement scheme is prone to corruption, this was the case in the original contract that was brought to an end by Rumsfeld in 2006. Moreover, the big money involved in military procurement processes act as a natural catalysts for corruption, therefore there is need to come up with a robust self regulated systems that will ensure that such unethical practices are not in anyway included in the procurement process, the congress thus comes into the picture (Meyer, 2007). However, the political system is not known for its objectivity. In the cases, some of the reasons brought out against Northrop Grumman are flimsy and lack in objectivity. The fact that there will be lobbying is a clear sign that there will be loss in objectivity thus the decision will tend to favor groups that are be able to garner enough political support in the congress. Furthermore, the political system is one of the most corrupt system there is and the rationale in placing such a system to guard against corruption is questionable. ii. Security Military procurement is a security critical matter (Meyer, 2007). The military is in place to ensure that the US is protected against its external enemies (Meyer, 2007). The seriousness with which the equipment tendering process is treated and the keen eye that the media watches the unfolding of such events relay the importance placed on the military by the American people. The US is traditionally a ‘fighting nation’ and the effectiveness of its military and equipments is one of the factors that has cemented its place as a world power. Military activities require high levels of secrecy (Meyer, 2007). There is need to come up with effective equipments that can be used in varied situations. It should be noted that the arguments brought forward by the executives from both sides are centered around the superiority of their products or the weaknesses of their opposite. The need for accuracy and well developed products that have the required reputation are some of the considerations that led to the two big companies making it to the final stage. The two companies are multinationals that have developed their brands all over the globe. It is noteworthy that when the US defense secretary cancels Boeing’s leases other nations still seek their products and are continues seeking the products that have been labeled cost ineffective due to the reputation associated with their brand name. The importance of the security system is seen in the number of avenues and legislative systems that have been put in place to ensure that the process is done in a just manner (Krishnan, 2008). When the airforce declares that Northrop Grumman had won the bid for the airforce tankers, Boeing seeks redress through a different avenue: Public accountability office. The office looks at their complaints and decides to freeze the process. It should be noted that it was the same office that had early in the decades frozen a billion dollar Boeing contract due to corruption charges. Even though there are systems put in place to ensure proper procedures in procurement of services and services, they can be outdone easily (Krishnan, 2008). The corruption allegations made in the initial Boeing contracts are a clear case where the protocols were overridden and it only came to realization a couple of months after the contracts had been signed. Furthermore, the fact that is was later found out that a different design could meet the specifications made by the airforce with reduced costs clearly show that even though the guidelines are put in place they are rarely followed thus the need for a system or authority that will follow up on the recommendations and processes to ensure that they conform to the laid out guidelines. Some politicians have argued that the French affiliation of the airbus manufacturer is in itself a security risk and therefore a purely American company should be contracted. However, such a contracting systems will obviously lock out other capable companies and therefore bring about questions on the integrity of the bidding process. America has prided itself as being a liberalized nation, putting up measures that will lock out other qualified members on the basis of the compositions of its investors is contrary to the spirit of liberalization. Furthermore, being involved with a company that has partnered with a success story in Europe shields the tanker project from American economic downtimes though it effectively ensures that the project is affected by the happening in Europe. It is unrealistic to lobby for Boeing on the basis of confidentiality; a company that has already shown traces of corruption cannot be trusted and neither can a company that is yet to prove its worth in the military sector. Therefore, system should be put in place to ensure that the projects are monitored and compared to some given standards if either is to be awarded the contract. iii. Stability The US is the father of capitalism and is therefore a country that is characterized by intense competition between industry players who will always be on the look for additional finances that will ensure their development into the future (Verkuil, 2007). On the day it was reported that Northrop Grumman had won the military contracts its share prices rose by over 20 cents and Boeing’s shares fell by a couple of cents (CBS News, 2008). Note, the development in the contract procurement were being watched by investors who will then make their decisions on which company to invest in. Even though the large money involved in the transactions may be enough to lure investors into channeling their resources to a particular company, the reputation involved in being a company contracted with one of the world’s best airforce to develop its aircraft tankers is enough to cause significant changes in the company’s share index. Being a capitalistic economy where entities gain at the expense of others, Boeing is bound to feel the pinch. The situation is made worse by the consideration that Boeing has a well developed reputation and therefore failure to win a contract from a partner that it has associated with for a long time may be taken by the investors and its consumers in the wrong light. It may imply that the partner does not trust its capacity to develop superiors products or has doubts on its potential to remain productive. To bring the idea of reputation into perspective, many are of the notion that the corruptions charges brought against Boeing may have affected its chances of successfully bidding for the contract (Verkuil, 2007). This holds considerable weight in that the military is not all about facilities but also reputation. The American people and its enemies will always keep a keen eye on the military and any transactions conducted with a partner who is proved to be corrupt will dent on its integrity thus its reputation. Conclusion Awarding a contract to a company to deliver services that are of public interest is a complex process and will always involve the media and many other systems that have been put in place to ensure the safety of the public. Individual good and interest will always be central in the arguments brought forward by most people, this is more pronounced if the contract will significantly affect many people. It is therefore upon the government and the social systems to ensure that the systems put in place to ensure effectiveness of the bidding process are functioning properly and are robust enough to deal with the dynamism associated with such processes. If need be, changes must be instituted to ensure that the system are functioning. The products delivered must measure up to some predetermined standards to ensure quality and accountability. These measures and other quality management measures if well integrated into the bidding and implementation of contracts that are of public interest will ensure that the public benefits in the best possible way. Word Count: 3271 Reference List CBS News (2008). Boeing Spurned On Huge Air Force Contract. Retrieved 13 October 2008 from Krishnan, A. (2008). War as Business: Technological Change and Military Service Contracting. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Meyer, J. (2007). Working in a War Zone: Military Contractors. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Online News Hour (2008). Boeing, Northrop Grumman Clash Over Tanker Contract. Retrieved 13 October 2008 from United States Government Accountability Office (2008). Statement Regarding the Bid Protest Decision Resolving the Aerial Refueling Tanker Protest by The Boeing Company. Retrieved 13 October 2008 from Verkuil, R. (2007). Outsourcing Sovereignty: Why Privatization of Government Functions Threatens Democracy and what We Can Do about it. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Ethical Principles Of Nursing Practice - 974 Words

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Being that nursing as a profession, is charged with the clinical duty, the subject practitioners who are the nurses, should also develop those values that provide special care to the patients who deserve to be given the best of care. The nurses are expected to work based on the values that they have selected (Bush 2007). These values should form a framework that evaluates their activities and even influencing their goals, strategies and function. The nursing values can therefore be counted as necessary resources for conduct in relation to clinical ethical competency and therefore confrontation with contemporary ethical concerns. Ethical standards Other than the reflection on the ethical values, there areShow MoreRelatedEthics Case Study Essay911 Words   |  4 Pagesfaced with ethical issues and dilemmas on a regular basis. Nurses must understand his or her values and morals to be able to deal adequately with the ethical issues he or she is faced with. 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Questions On Strategic Human Resource Problems - 1011 Words

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A Critical Analysis of Michael Jordan and the New Global...

A Critical Analysis of Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism In the history of business, there has been a clear record of industry heads finding something or someone as a mainstay and bedrock for their respective companies or corporations; there is often a chief product that keeps many businesses afloat, even in the rough times. Apple found its own in 2001 with the iPod. McDonalds has had the Big Mac since the late 1960s. Nike, however, found their goldmine in a person with Michael Jordan. Walter LaFebers Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism tells the paints the picture of the rise of young Michael Jordan from his middle-class family in racist North Carolina up through college and into the NBA where he becomes an†¦show more content†¦Stemming away from Jordan personally, it also touches on how the expansion of Nike created issues with regard to race by way of cultural and value-based analysis of black culture and effect that the Air Jordan shoe had on its people. One example of which is shown from the black on black crim e that ensued as a result of the marketing of the Air Jordan in the 1990s. Significance in the arena black business is also evident. Obvious significance is shown from the growth of the business of Michael Jordan himself. It shows how a single man can amass wealth starting one-dimensionally as a person with extraordinary athletic talent and transitioning into one who takes the reigns as the leader of his own division of a transnational corporation while still working to his own and his brands marketability. Its also subtly important to show how the Nike product also spiked the dollar seen by inner city ‘mom and pop athletic apparel stores, mostly black owned. Chapter 4 touches on the effect of the Air Jordan on inner cities, both good and bad, and even though there was crime and drug money involved with the sales of Air Jordans, it is still hard to ignore the increase of money that resulted as well. 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“Originality in Italian Renaissance Architecture” Essay Example For Students

â€Å"Originality in Italian Renaissance Architecture† Essay The Chairman : This afternoon we are to hear Professor Cordingley, who occupies the Chair of Architecture at the Manchester University, talking to us on Originality in Italian Renaissance Architecture†. Many of you know that the old system of training architects in England, that of pupilage, has been considerably superseded by the school system and that architectural schools have been set up in London and various other cities up and down the country. Two of these are in Lancashire—at Manchester and Liverpool. Liverpool has, for various reasons, come into the pub Ik eye rather more than Manchester, but Manchester has always refused to be overawed by its powerful neigh- bour and under Professor Dickie, and later under his successor. Professor Cordingley, its school of architecture has developed a method of designing rather characteristic of itself. It is a type of design which 1 would say is distinguished by its modernism while not neglecting tradition and yet infused with scholarship. Without more ado, I will call upon Professor Cordingley to deliver his lecture. The following paper was then read: The Renaissance of Architecture in Italy extended over more than four hundred years—from 1420 to c. 1850. Selwyn Brinton, the founder of the series of lectures of which this is the second, in his series of volumes under the title of â€Å"The Art of the Renaissance†, adopts comprehending dates (1200-1800) which allow- reasonable room for the full cycle of the architectural manifestation of that Art. Much more commonly among historians, the Renaissance in Architecture is held to have terminated about 1600. The discrepancy is a matter which it is purposed here to examine. Italian Renaissance Architecture has suffered singular misfortunes of inter- pretation in the last hundred years. Rugltin is largely to blame. To him the Renais- sance appeared an irreligious style, and one, therefore, to be abhorred. Undeniable aesthetic merit of individual works sometimes forced his reluctant admiration, but for the most part, he studiously ignored the style or blistered it with a passing phrase incidental to his adulation of the â€Å"Christian† medieval arts. His views, or views like his , have coloured in diminishing, yet still important, degree almost all estimates of the values of the style made up to recent times. Thus, as views now stand, the earlier and formative phases of the style arc universally admired; the later phases remain in high disrepute, except in the instance of a few famous monuments or among the more enlightened enquirers and writers. The two stages are distinguished by separate terms, the â€Å"Renaissance† for the first stage and the Baroque† for the second. In this way the part is made to appear as the whole; and this is not accidental, for most writers on architecture arc at pains to prove a high distinction between the two, discerning a sharp change of trend and character at the junction between them. The Renaissance, according to these writers, did indeed end at a given point, to be succeeded by another, related but clearly distinguishable, historical style. One, the â€Å"Renaissance† naturally, is shown as of mostly admirable Qualities; the other, the Baroque, as mostly dis reputable and not infrequently vile. The date set for the division between t he two varies considerably, but about 1580 is a usual choice. The sharp distinction—a false one, it is hoped to show—is made almost exclusively upon grounds of externa] character and effect, and the Renaissance is deemed to last just so long as ancient Roman precedent is followed in matters of decorative detail. This is a too narrow, and, under the special circumstances, unstable a basis for a proper evaluation. The normal historical kind of review is much to be preferred; but there is partial justification for the standpoint in that the Renaissance architects, like the Greek, themselves had adopted the aesthetic objective; just as, on the other hand, the Romans and the medievals absorbed themselves outstandingly in practical, constructive endeavours. But too much room is left for the vagaries of taste and further deliberate judgment depends too importantly on accurate attribution of the origin of the decorative elements used. There is no kind of doubt that the Renaissance drew considerably upon ancient Rome for its stock of decor ative motifs, but this dependence frequently is exaggerated and attributions of origin quite often are at fault. In archeological ignorance sometimes, but quite consciously at others, the Renaissance borrowings were from the Early Christian or Romanesque, quite apart from the perpetuation of Italian medieval practices as the foundation of the Renaissance style. Too readily it is taken for granted that Renaissance classic is of the Roman kind. Sometimes, in recent days, Renaissance footifs have been used inferential!)-, as evidence of Roman architectural methods, but this is a most unsafe proceeding. As will be shown, there was much that was quite distinctive in the Renaissance usage of the decorative elements. They did not copy direct, but adapted and developed their own systems. They invented too, and combined the classical, old and new, with motifs derived from other architectures of intermediate times. A true evaluation necessitates consideration of the movement as a whole, and the Baroque was a part of that whole. At the outset of the Renaissance, and for long thereafter, ancient Rome provided a stimulus, but this did not endure at the same intensity throughout. In fact, during the Baroque phase, it was so slight as to be negligible. Renaissance character must not, therefore, be measured, in any sense, by the degree of its dependence upon ancient Roman architecture. This must have been merely incidental to it. It emerged from that dependence and reached maturity as a style, conditioned by circumstances yet to be examined; though it is unnecessary to decide at what particular point in its evolution it reached its finest sesthctic expression. Seen in this light, the so-called â€Å"Rena issance† phase was a stage of experimentation and development, not, by any means, an evolution in itself. Instead, the culmination, in the historical sense, lies in the Baroque stage. This is quite different from the usual interpretation, which would represent the onset of the Baroque, about 1580, as a revolt against academic purism in the deploy ment of the time-honoured classical elements, which, it is said, had come to be used with too meticulous and deadly a formality. Yet it has never yet been shown in what group of buildings this particular kind of rigidity exists. Nor are architects instanced, though sometimes we are told, almost in the same breath, that Palladio (especially) and Vignola were the ultimate purists—perhaps because they were authors of the most famous of the literary codes on the use of the classical elements and yet that neither held strictly to his own precepu. They were, if we compound the typical but contradictory statcm:nts made about them, archacologically-mindcd, hide- bound pedants and free-thinking, original, inventive practising architects. That they were academic in written theory and emancipated in their practice is not the explanation, for the universal popularity of their writings is attributed to the originality of the ideas expressed in them and the fitness of those ideas for con- temporary use. However, there is this unanimity in modern writings; there was little or no further reference made to ancient Roman architecture, once the Baroque was fully under way. The independence of the Baroque, all admit, was virtually complete. The occasion to invent a revolt† against pedantry and the observance of strict classical precepts† arises from the common interpretation of the course of the Renaissance up to that point as a regular progression towards the complete recovery of latin architectural ideals and methods. Unfortunately for this contention, it is notorious that the ancient Romans had very low artistic taste, and no better than rule-of-thumb decorative methods. For convenience of review, the architectural manifestations of the Renaissance need suitable sub-division. The common use of the term, in architectural circles at least, for a part of the whole is to be regretted, but it would be even more confusing here to attempt to substitute a new one. One may accept then, the Renaissance† as the precursor of the â€Å"Baroque†, though not admitting a break of logical develop ment between them. In Italy of these times, accurate chronological subdivision is even more than normally impracti cable, for the political severance between part and part occasioned developments at varying rates and the formulation of local schools with markedly individual practices. The dates to be given here, then, are highly generalised, and are stated in round figures. The Early Renaissance† (1420-1500) was followed by the High Renais sance† (1500-1550). A stage of Transition† ensued (1550-1600), and introduced the â€Å"High Baroque† (1600-1700) within which lay the culmination of the style, at aboi^t 1650. The Late Baroque† (1700-1750), wherein there is a trend towards the Rococo† (a lighter version of the Baroque), might be taken as the closure of the Renaissance proper, since thereafter the Italian is no longer an important originating source, but reflects instead developments taking place in France and countries elsewhere. The cycle of the movement was not then, however, completed, as in Northern Europe and England an â€Å"Antiquarian† Phase of some complexity followed (1750-1800), largely classical and tending increasingly towards the Neo Grec†. The latter, the Neo-Grec, might be embraced roundly in the dates 1800 1850. It was the dominant though not the exclusive manifestation throughout the greater part of that time. The Renaissance masters were activated almost exclusively by esthetic i deals. They were most able too in constructive science, but this to them was a means to the asthctic end, and not an end in itself. Here lies a mighty distinction between them and their Roman forbears, whom they purposed to emulate. Old Roman greatness lay in their political and economic system,not, certainly, in any decisive way in their arts. The Northern RenaissanceThe need for buttressing obviated, or very much minimised, the dome could be raised aloft to allow the insertion of fully adequate windows in a â€Å"drum† interposed below it, and the whole could then be exploited for grand external as well as internal visual effect. In other domes, more sightly tlun Brunelleschi’s, the incorporation of further structural devices (pendentives) permitted the use of the domical termination over any kind of regular base plan, not only round or ellip tical (for domes even of this shape came to be used), but square, octagonal and rectilinear too. Due to Brunelleschi’s invention, the dome came to be the almost inevitable crowning feature of every church or chapel, and the dominant, and not infrequently the exclusive, form of covering used. The experimental stages of development of this magnificent feature were traversed in the Early and High Renaissance stages of the style; St. Peter’s, on the threshol d of the Baroque, is the first major instance of thoroughly mature design. Afterwards, Baroque Rome became a city of splendid domes. The first onset of the Renaissance produced little outward change in palace design, and at no time do external influences importantly affect the established or developing modes of living or methods of use. On the other hand, medieval constructive character, protracted into the Renaissance, contributed an initial suggestion for a fresh range of decorative techniques, which, thereafter, the Renaissance masters infinitely exploited. The new range was that of rustication. Now there are endless instances of Roman rock-faced masonry, yet these are in no case deliberately designed to be decorative. They occur in the Roman idea as an incidental economy in constructive works outside the architectural pale. Nor do the Roman instances occur on those parts of buildings embellished with columns or their decorative adjuncts; except in one or two instances such as the Porta Maggiorc at Rome where however, the structures manifestly were never completed. The rustications here were intended to be dressed off, but the work was never wholly done. The ancient Romans never came nearer to the deliberate use of rusticated decoration than the occasional chisel-drafting along the joint-lines in the otherwise smooth masonry of certain temple cells. This is not to say that the old Roman instances, accidental though they are, did not offer suggestions to Renaissance enthusiasts. Renaissance initiative in this direction begins at once, in Florence again, with the first domestic building in the new style—the Riccardi Palace (1430). Every centre in the country in due course developed its local v ariants; the stones left rough and characterful, or bossed and facetted in high artificiality. At first restricted to wall surfaces, rustication soon came to be applied too to the Orders themselves, as, notably, in the work of Sanmichele in the Verona region (e.g., Porta Nuova, 1532) or of Alessi and Lurago (Porta Pila) in ornamental town gateways at Genoa. Palladio imitated it in stucco; Vignola expanded its range of use to the enframing of masonry panelling and to the embellishment of garden ornaments. In stucco, and in a variety of extravagant forms, it became the dominant decorative motif of the garden grotto and the artificial waterfall and cascade. It invaded the surrounds to windows and doors, and was used even on balustrades, stringmoulds and cornices. In short, rustication took its important place among the Renaissance decorative resources. French, English and German, as well as Italian Baroque art would be much the poorer without it. At certain phases in the development of the several national styles, rustication is sometimes almost the sole decorative device employed. Whilst on this point, another purely Renaissance decorative invention may be instanced—that of the baluster. Roman parapets, if not solid, were commonly of palisade character, patterned with interlacings in the panels, imitating wooden prototypes. The Byz antines used these too, but also developed a distinctive practice in which the panel is a carved or pierced slab, supported between posts. Italian medieval practice varied, in part it followed the Byzantine, but more characteris tically, tiny columns of simplified classical design carried miniature arches, which, in turn, supported the parapet rails. Both the Italian medieval usages survived into the Renaissance. Instances may be found in the chapel screens in Albertis re-modelled S. Francesco at Rimini. The true baluster, as we know it to-day, is first traceable in the Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo (c. 1470-6). Hereabouts in the Milan region, there had been proceeding an exhaustive series of experiments with candela bra-like forms of ornament, applied as architectural decoration, and a wide range appears on this building. The use of the true baluster spread rapidly. It appeared both in Rome (Sistinc Chapel) and Venice (Pal Comer-Spinclli) by about 1480. By the end of the century, the older forms of parapet had almost wholly disappeared. The initial simple baluster, symmetrical in its upper and lower halves, soon gave place to the familiar type, weighted heavily in the lower part of the sleeve; but many variants subsequently were invented, especially in the Baroque phase. The progress of balustrade design is a good index of thef date of monuments. Surprisingly little initiative was shown in ancient Rome in the exploitation of the decorative possibilities of the Orders of Architecture. The arrangements in common use extended little beyond the simplest form of colonnade and arcade, and the com bination of the two into that motif most typical of their architecture, the so-called Roman Order†. Richer and more complicated devices rarely were used, and, even so, in single units for the especial decoration of comparatively small monuments, or for the elaboration of special parts of the larger ones. Tombs and sepulchral monuments, triumphal arches and the scena: of theatres are practically alone the subjects of decorative variation from the universal monotonous themes. Pedestal, parapet and other adjuncts were used, and the tabernacle† window or niche,but none of these appears to have been an original invention on Italian soil. There arc Greek Hellenistic precedents for each. The Renaissance materially extended the range of standard decorative motifs in regular use. Mostly, the new themes were invented afresh, for all that a careful search may disclose an occasional Roman instance of each. Such dubious precedents would very likely be the outcome of accidental and not calculated combinations. How frequently, for instance, is the â€Å"coupled† colonnade used in Roman times in extension beyond ? single bay, or that further type, in which the spacing of the Order is alternately wide and narrow? These arc very familiar dispositions in the It is true, of course, that the face of Renaissance architecture was never more like the Roman titan at this mid-sixteenth century time. Since the borrowings of ancient motifs were cumulative and ceased very soon, the point is obvious. Yet in general, the likeness was even now quite slight and certainly has not the significance usually attached to it. The kinship was less, not more, strong than before. In the essentia ls of spatial organisation and structural method, the two architectures were at no time particularly close, and never more so than at the outset. The trend thereafter was increasingly divergent. The cause of the break was incompatibility, increasing, naturally, as the Renaissance individuality developed. There was no hiatus or violent distortion in the Renaissance growth at this or any other stage. It followed a natural course and achieved a climax in its own right. The greatest debt due to Rome was that for the classic principles of formality; for the rest, as has been shown, certain details were acquired, but they were assimilated, not imitated, digested and trans- muted into decorative systems nearly always original in themselves, and always used in distinctive ways.